Love Science: Olfaction of Synthetic Sex Pheromones and its Effect on Sociosexual Behavior in Men and Women
Abstract
This research paper will investigate how pheromones are interpreted by humans and to prove that synthetically manufactured sex pheromones will alter sociosexual behavior in men and women. Pheromones are expected to increase the romantic interaction between the user of the synthetic sex pheromone and that of the opposite-sex. Two case studies using naturally occurring pheromones found that the under-arm secretions of young men and women, have shown to significantly increase sociosexual behavior in men and women. One double-blind, placebo controlled case study will show the effectiveness of laboratory manufactured pheromone to work in the benefit of men and women, to increase the romance in their lives.
Introduction
“At the origin of all life there was molecular recognition.” – Wittko Francke
Pheromones are defined as chemicals produced and released by a living organism which is then received by another organism of the same species to elicit a behavioral, emotional, or a developmental response by the receiving organism [1]. There exists 4 classes of pheromones; opposite-sex attractants, same-sex repellents, mother-infant bonding attractants, and pheromones that signal the time a reproducing bodies’ fertility [4]. Pheromones, being chemical molecules, are swept into the nasal cavity where the inhaled airstream is filtered by vibrissae (stiff hairs) and humidified by blood vessels. Part of the airstream sweeps the pheromone molecules upwards and backwards depositing the molecules on the olfactory mucosa (Figure 1.1) [4]. The olfactory mucosa shares a common embryological site with the Vomero-nasal organ (VMO). The olfactory system and the Vomero-nasal organ both process scents, odors, and pheromones. Specifically the VMO will process timing and repellent pheromones while the olfactory epithelium will process the sexual attracting pheromones.
Pheromone molecules are transmitted to the brain’s rhinencephalon and amygdala regions of the limbic system via an accessory olfactory bulb and vomeronasal nerves [1, 3, 12]. The limbic system elicits a physical, emotional, or developmental response.
Researchers are speculating that the Vomero-nasal organ could be the human species sixth sense [9]. Hormone researcher Wittko Francke and numerous biochemical researchers believe that the VMO or “The Sixth Sense” might be the organ that is involved with making the choice on weather or not two people like each other [5].
Humans produce natural pheromones; Androstenone and Androstenol. Androstenol is very similar to the sex hormone: testosterone. Androstenol and Androstenol are found in human sweat, men have about six times more of these compounds in their sweat, than women. The average person would consider the scents produced by Androstenone and Androstenol to be malodorous. On the contrary: just before ovulation, some women consider this malodorous scent as being attractive, while others find it to be a repellent [3, 5].
Synthetic pheromones are a mixture of short-chain fatty acids [4]. When speaking of synthetic pheromones each company has their own proprietary formula [6]. Thus, the methods and apparatuses for the proceeding case studies will vary[1, 2, 5]. Most synthetic pheromones are derived from a truffle (figure 1.2) which can be defined as: An underground rounded, irregular shaped fungus that is edible. The fungus used in the manufacturing of synthetic pheromones[18]. All synthetic pheromones used in the following case studies will have the truffle fungus as a base for manufacturing of patent-pending synthetic pheromones [6].
Case Study #1:
A study at conducted at the University of Northumbria at Newcastle in 2000 [4]. The study came to a conclusion that women perceive men as more attractive when they can smell the sweat containing high levels of Androstenone and Androstenol. It was also concluded that the women’s increase in attraction for a man is always subconscious [7], and when the women were questioned about the use of pheromones they were unaware.
Case Study #2:
A study conducted at a speed-dating venue in the United Kingdom to test the effects of Androstenone on the interaction between males and females. Speed dating is a simple process, speed-dating allows men and women to interact very briefly. At the end of each speed-dating round each participant notes if they would want to see one another again. Thus, a speed-dating venue would be perfect for assessing the effects of Androstenone [2, 4].
Method and Procedure
Case Study #1:
This experiment involved 16 female students, who were led to believe that they were taking part in a test of new brands of soda. Unknown to the females the researchers’ intentions of this study was to assess the unconscious reaction to male sweat. The women were asked to judge a series of male photos, after consuming one soft drink. After the judging is completed, the participants were asked to leave the room. Shortly after, the participants returned to begin the same task which is to judge the series of male photos. However, unbeknown-st to the participants, a cloth soaked in male sweat was in close proximity [2, 4].
Case Study #2:
The experiment involved 22 male and 25 female participants. All participants will be involved in a round of speed-dating. Before the interactions occur, participants used cotton wool pads to apply one of three substances; water, clove oil, or 4,16-Androstadien-3-one (structure 1.1). The participants were not told which solution they were given. Before the interaction begins between opposite-sexes, the women were asked questions pertaining to their health and general information. Including but not limited to; age, self-rated attractiveness, menstrual cycle dates, hormonal contraceptive usage, smoking habits, drinking habits, and a description of the odor they were given by the research study [4].
Structure 1.1 - 4,16-Androstadien-3-one
Subjects
Case Study #1:
The subjects were recruited using local press and university announcements. The subjects had to be female, heterosexual, in good health and of college age (19-25). No specific social testing was needed, since the study did not require interaction with the opposite sex [2, 7].
Case Study #2:
The subjects were recruited through university channels from multiple universities to reduce the risk that any one participant would know the other. The subjects ranged from age 19 to 25 years old. The subjects were asked not to consume any alcoholic beverages prior to completing the study. The subjects were forbidden to wear any colognes, perfume, scented moisturizers, or toilette spray [1, 4].
Apparatus
Case Study #1:
The Study was conducted in the year 2000 at The University of Northumbria at Newcastle. Located at Ellison Place Newcastle Upon Tyne, NE1, United Kingdom. The equipment used was a numbered 1-10 scale to rate the attractiveness of the male photos, a cloth soaked in male sweat, and photos of male subjects.
Case Study #2:
The study was conducted in the year 2008 at an unlisted speed-dating establishment. Located at Bebington, Wirral, Merseyside, CH63 3JW, United Kingdom. The study used cotton wool pads, water, clove oil, Eppendorf pipette, and 4,16-Androstadien-3-one [8] with a concentration below conscious recognition.
Stimuli
Case Study #1:
The stimuli used in the study was the male photos in the initial round and in the second round both the male photos and the cloth soaked in male sweat was used.
Case Study #2
The stimuli used in the study was a control solution of either water, or clove oil. The test solution was 4,16-Androstadien-3-one [8]. Remaining stimuli is the interaction from the speed-dating.
Results
Case Study #1:
The effects of the sweat soaked cloth on the participant’s judgment was enormous. It clearly showed that in the presence of the pheromones the men were judged as being significantly more attractive. It was noted, that the photo voted to be the least attractive male by all participants, in the presence of the pheromone the participants voted the least attractive male to be nearly as attractive as the best-looking man.
Case Study #2:
During the preliminary questioning, the participants gave descriptors for the odor they were given. There were three women given the 4,16-Androstadien-3-one, the women described the 4,16-Androstadien-3-one as smelling like urine, babies, nappies, cloves, and musty/dirty odors. Given that the women were able to give clear descriptors, the 4,16-Androstadien-3-one was consciously detected [3, 18].
The following result data is based off of a 6 minute exposure to the 4,16-Androstadien-3-one and lasting at least 2 hours.
Figure 1.2 - Mean attractivness rating, by experimental condition (androstadienone in clove oil, clove oil alone, and water) and by speed-dating round.
Men using the 4,16-Androstadien-3-one had a much better rate of success in attractive appeal compared to those men using one of the control odors (Figure 1.2). When the male participants were asked how they would rate themselves, the attractiveness scale co-varied with that specific male’s chance of being selected for future meetings resulting from the speed-dating study(Figure 1.3).
Figure 1.3 - The relationship between a man's chance or a repeat meeting in proportion to that man's rated attractiveness
Synthesized Pheromone Case Study
This case study is a double-blind, placebo-Controlled study which investigates the effect of synthesized male pheromones and the role these pheromones play on the Sociosexual behavior of men. The study also investigates the pheromones role when interacting with members of the opposite sex as well as the male perception of the pheromones effects on his sex life.
Method and Procedure
In this double-blind study, the participants, all male, began with an interview to complete the required psychological screening. The participants were required to provide informed consent to participate in the study. Each participant was asked to bring his aftershave lotion or cologne for the study. The participants were instructed to use his aftershave or cologne after each shave at least three times per week. Each participant was given a calendar provided by the Athena institute whom was conducting the study [1].
Participants were asked to record six behaviors daily and submit the recording to the Athena institute on a weekly basis. The six behaviors were listed as follows:
Petting/affection/kissing
Formal dates (pre-arranged)
Informal dates (not arranged before that day)
Sleeping next to a romantic partner
Sexual intercourse
Self-stimulation to ejaculation
During the first two weeks the participants were not given and experimental conditions such as a pheromone or placebo. After the two week baseline period came to an end all study participants were asked to return to the Athena institute to be given an experimental condition. The experimental conditions consisted of either ethanol or an ethanol-pheromone mixture. Each participant was then asked to add the given experimental condition to the aftershave or cologne they had been using during the baseline of the study [1].
The study was only intended to investigate the effects on the men using the placebo or pheromone.
Subjects
The study was recruiting participants by using local press and news announcements. the participants had to be male, of heterosexual orientation, be between ages of 25 to 42, be of good health, have a clean shaven appearance, shave regularly, have decent social skills when it comes to members of the opposite sex, and not be abnormally handsome or unattractive.
When the participants met all of the required criteria, they were required to undergo social screening using a test designed by Hans Eysenck [1, 17]. The participants in the study could not be considered to have a high level of being neurotic, extroverted, or psychotic according to the Eysenck Personality Inventory [17]. Participants also underwent thorough screening in areas of medical, sexual, family, and criminal history.
The following table shows the initial criteria of participant interested in the study:
Apparatus
Each participant is performing this study in the comfort of their own homes. The only location required in the study is the Athena Institute located the West Chester, Pennsylvania. The equipment used in the study is a small 5 milliliter vial containing either the placebo or the pheromone, along with the provided calendar to record the six behaviors required by the study. The study continued for six weeks following the two week baseline.
Stimuli
The stimuli in this study is either ethanol the placebo or the ethanol-pheromone mixture. The pheromone used in the study is a synthetic version of 4,16-Androstadien-3-one [1, 8, 15]. Athena institute still has a patent-pending and therefore will not release its proprietary formula
Results
During the six week study the participant calendars showed aftershave use of 5.82 times per week for the pheromone participants and 5.29 times per week for placebo users. Looking at Table II it is apparent that pheromone users significantly improved above the baseline when compared to the placebo users [1].
A greater proportion of pheromone participants increase in Sociosexual behavior than that of placebo participants. Another results is the self-stimulation was unaffected by both placebo and pheromone use [1, 13]. 47% of participants using the pheromone perceived a result while only 24% of the placebo participants perceived a result.
Discussion
To summarize all the findings in the three different case studies. Two of studies utilizing naturally occurring pheromone, and the other using a synthesized pheromone. All studies have proven the fact that both natural and synthesized pheromones elicit a physical and/or sexual response from the opposite-sex. Even if they cannot detect pheromones consciously, one might speculate, if pheromones increase our romantic interaction, and these pheromones are excreted by our body. What does this say about our society and the obsession with cleanliness [11]?
Certain studies have also suggested that male sweat can assist women experiencing fertility complications [16]. In one study researchers obtained sweat from male subjects who have not used deodorant for four weeks. The sweat obtained from the male subjects was applied to the upper lips of female participants. The female participants immediately stated that they were in a better mood and experienced decreased stress. Some laboratory tests showed an increase in the luteinizing hormone [10], which is the same hormone that increases just prior to ovulation.
The results of both male and female studies suggest that the substances occurring naturally in the underarm secretions of young, sexually active women and young, healthy, sexually active men. Have enormous effects on members of the opposite sex.
Conclusion
In all studies, all participants had the same expectations. However, scientific research has showed that pheromones both natural and artificial can increase romance in one’s life. Pheromones being nearly undetectable and unnoticed can also mean that all living organisms have an innate need to attract to another organism of the same species[. Pheromones specifically sexual pheromones are Mother Nature’s and sciences way of proving a method to finding love [20]. One might ask if pheromones can be used to elicit a sexual response from a member of the same sex. Research suggests that sexual orientation is caused by the lack of a specific hormone. Thus a male subject attempting to use a female pheromone will most likely fail if the targeted individual has normal hormone levels [18].
References:
1. | DOI | Winnifred B. Cutler, Erika Friedmann, & Norma L. Mccoy. (1998). Pheromonal influences on sociosexual behvior in men. Archives of Sexual Behavior,27(1), 1-1-13.
2. | DOI | Tamsin K. Saxton, Anna Lyndon, Anthony C. Little, S. Craig Roberts, Evidence that androstadienone, a putative human chemosignal, modulates women's attributions of men's attractiveness, Hormones and Behavior, Volume 54, Issue 5, November 2008, Pages 597-601
3. | DOI | Norma L. McCoy, Lisa Pitino, Pheromonal influences on sociosexual behavior in young women, Physiology & Behavior, Volume 75, Issue 3, March 2002, Pages 367-375
4. | Book | Gabriele and Rolf Frobose. Lust and Love: is it more than chemistry? 2006
5. | DOI | Karl Grammer, Bernhard Fink, Nick Neave, Human pheromones and sexual attraction, European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, Volume 118, Issue 2, 1 February 2005, Pages 135-142
6. | Book | Gross, Michael: Cupid’s Chemistry. Chemistry World 3, No. 2, 32-35
7. | Book | Sidney A. Simon, Miguel A.L. Nicolelis. Methods in Chemosensory Research 2002
8. | Book | Warrick Brewer, David Castle and Christos Pantelis. Olfaction and the Brain 2006
9. | Wiki | Olfaction." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 29 Nov 2009, 06:42 UTC. 5 Dec 2009
10. | Book | Howard C. Hughes. Sensory Exotica 1999
11. | DOI | Charles J. Wysocki, George Preti (1998) "Pheromonal Influences" Archives of Sexual Behavior 27 (6): 627-641.
12. | Book | Robert H Cagan, Morely R. Kare. Biochemistry of Taste and Olfaction 1981
13. | Book | William H. Masters, Virginia E. Johnson. Human Sexual Response 1966
14. | Book | Janet Shibley Hyde.. Biological Substrates of Human Sexuality 2005
15. | DOI | P.A. Sinclair, S. Hancock, W.J. Gilmore, E.J. Squires, Metabolism of the 16-androstene steroids in primary cultured porcine hepatocytes, The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Volume 96, Issue 1, June 2005, Pages 79-87
16. | DOI | Stern K, McClintock MK (1998). "Regulation of ovulation by human pheromones". Nature 392 (6672): 177–9
17. | Book | Eysenck, Hans J., Experiments in Behaviour Therapy, London: Pergamon Press, 1964
18. | DOI | Wysocki CJ, Preti G (November 2004). "Facts, fallacies, fears, and frustrations with human pheromones". The Anatomical Record. Part a, Discoveries in Molecular, Cellular, and Evolutionary Biology 281 (1): 1201–11
19. | Book | Anatomy of Love: a natural history of mating, marriage, and why we stray. Batus., 1995
20. | Magazine | Sanjay Gupta, M. D., Jonathan D. Lynch. The Chemistry of Love. February 2002
Love Science: Olfaction of Synthetic Sex Pheromones and its Effect on Sociosexual Behavior in Men and Women
Abstract
This research paper will investigate how pheromones are interpreted by humans and to prove that synthetically manufactured sex pheromones will alter sociosexual behavior in men and women. Pheromones are expected to increase the romantic interaction between the user of the synthetic sex pheromone and that of the opposite-sex. Two case studies using naturally occurring pheromones found that the under-arm secretions of young men and women, have shown to significantly increase sociosexual behavior in men and women. One double-blind, placebo controlled case study will show the effectiveness of laboratory manufactured pheromone to work in the benefit of men and women, to increase the romance in their lives.
Introduction
“At the origin of all life there was molecular recognition.” – Wittko Francke
Pheromones are defined as chemicals produced and released by a living organism which is then received by another organism of the same species to elicit a behavioral, emotional, or a developmental response by the receiving organism [1]. There exists 4 classes of pheromones; opposite-sex attractants, same-sex repellents, mother-infant bonding attractants, and pheromones that signal the time a reproducing bodies’ fertility [4]. Pheromones, being chemical molecules, are swept into the nasal cavity where the inhaled airstream is filtered by vibrissae (stiff hairs) and humidified by blood vessels. Part of the airstream sweeps the pheromone molecules upwards and backwards depositing the molecules on the olfactory mucosa (Figure 1.1) [4]. The olfactory mucosa shares a common embryological site with the Vomero-nasal organ (VMO). The olfactory system and the Vomero-nasal organ both process scents, odors, and pheromones. Specifically the VMO will process timing and repellent pheromones while the olfactory epithelium will process the sexual attracting pheromones.
Pheromone molecules are transmitted to the brain’s rhinencephalon and amygdala regions of the limbic system via an accessory olfactory bulb and vomeronasal nerves [1, 3, 12]. The limbic system elicits a physical, emotional, or developmental response.
Researchers are speculating that the Vomero-nasal organ could be the human species sixth sense [9]. Hormone researcher Wittko Francke and numerous biochemical researchers believe that the VMO or “The Sixth Sense” might be the organ that is involved with making the choice on weather or not two people like each other [5].
Humans produce natural pheromones; Androstenone and Androstenol. Androstenol is very similar to the sex hormone: testosterone. Androstenol and Androstenol are found in human sweat, men have about six times more of these compounds in their sweat, than women. The average person would consider the scents produced by Androstenone and Androstenol to be malodorous. On the contrary: just before ovulation, some women consider this malodorous scent as being attractive, while others find it to be a repellent [3, 5].
Synthetic pheromones are a mixture of short-chain fatty acids [4]. When speaking of synthetic pheromones each company has their own proprietary formula [6]. Thus, the methods and apparatuses for the proceeding case studies will vary[1, 2, 5]. Most synthetic pheromones are derived from a truffle (figure 1.2) which can be defined as: An underground rounded, irregular shaped fungus that is edible. The fungus used in the manufacturing of synthetic pheromones[18]. All synthetic pheromones used in the following case studies will have the truffle fungus as a base for manufacturing of patent-pending synthetic pheromones [6].
Truffle Fungus DNA Sequence [18]
Multimedia Content
Science of Sex Appeal: Attractive Man Funk?
Naturally Occurring Pheromone Case Studies
Case Study #1:
A study at conducted at the University of Northumbria at Newcastle in 2000 [4]. The study came to a conclusion that women perceive men as more attractive when they can smell the sweat containing high levels of Androstenone and Androstenol. It was also concluded that the women’s increase in attraction for a man is always subconscious [7], and when the women were questioned about the use of pheromones they were unaware.
Case Study #2:
A study conducted at a speed-dating venue in the United Kingdom to test the effects of Androstenone on the interaction between males and females. Speed dating is a simple process, speed-dating allows men and women to interact very briefly. At the end of each speed-dating round each participant notes if they would want to see one another again. Thus, a speed-dating venue would be perfect for assessing the effects of Androstenone [2, 4].
Method and Procedure
Case Study #1:
This experiment involved 16 female students, who were led to believe that they were taking part in a test of new brands of soda. Unknown to the females the researchers’ intentions of this study was to assess the unconscious reaction to male sweat. The women were asked to judge a series of male photos, after consuming one soft drink. After the judging is completed, the participants were asked to leave the room. Shortly after, the participants returned to begin the same task which is to judge the series of male photos. However, unbeknown-st to the participants, a cloth soaked in male sweat was in close proximity [2, 4].
Case Study #2:
The experiment involved 22 male and 25 female participants. All participants will be involved in a round of speed-dating. Before the interactions occur, participants used cotton wool pads to apply one of three substances; water, clove oil, or 4,16-Androstadien-3-one (structure 1.1). The participants were not told which solution they were given. Before the interaction begins between opposite-sexes, the women were asked questions pertaining to their health and general information. Including but not limited to; age, self-rated attractiveness, menstrual cycle dates, hormonal contraceptive usage, smoking habits, drinking habits, and a description of the odor they were given by the research study [4].
Subjects
Case Study #1:
The subjects were recruited using local press and university announcements. The subjects had to be female, heterosexual, in good health and of college age (19-25). No specific social testing was needed, since the study did not require interaction with the opposite sex [2, 7].
Case Study #2:
The subjects were recruited through university channels from multiple universities to reduce the risk that any one participant would know the other. The subjects ranged from age 19 to 25 years old. The subjects were asked not to consume any alcoholic beverages prior to completing the study. The subjects were forbidden to wear any colognes, perfume, scented moisturizers, or toilette spray [1, 4].
Apparatus
Case Study #1:
The Study was conducted in the year 2000 at The University of Northumbria at Newcastle. Located at Ellison Place Newcastle Upon Tyne, NE1, United Kingdom. The equipment used was a numbered 1-10 scale to rate the attractiveness of the male photos, a cloth soaked in male sweat, and photos of male subjects.
Case Study #2:
The study was conducted in the year 2008 at an unlisted speed-dating establishment. Located at Bebington, Wirral, Merseyside, CH63 3JW, United Kingdom. The study used cotton wool pads, water, clove oil, Eppendorf pipette, and 4,16-Androstadien-3-one [8] with a concentration below conscious recognition.
Stimuli
Case Study #1:
The stimuli used in the study was the male photos in the initial round and in the second round both the male photos and the cloth soaked in male sweat was used.
Case Study #2
The stimuli used in the study was a control solution of either water, or clove oil. The test solution was 4,16-Androstadien-3-one [8]. Remaining stimuli is the interaction from the speed-dating.
Results
Case Study #1:
The effects of the sweat soaked cloth on the participant’s judgment was enormous. It clearly showed that in the presence of the pheromones the men were judged as being significantly more attractive. It was noted, that the photo voted to be the least attractive male by all participants, in the presence of the pheromone the participants voted the least attractive male to be nearly as attractive as the best-looking man.
Case Study #2:
During the preliminary questioning, the participants gave descriptors for the odor they were given. There were three women given the 4,16-Androstadien-3-one, the women described the 4,16-Androstadien-3-one as smelling like urine, babies, nappies, cloves, and musty/dirty odors. Given that the women were able to give clear descriptors, the 4,16-Androstadien-3-one was consciously detected [3, 18].
The following result data is based off of a 6 minute exposure to the 4,16-Androstadien-3-one and lasting at least 2 hours.
Men using the 4,16-Androstadien-3-one had a much better rate of success in attractive appeal compared to those men using one of the control odors (Figure 1.2). When the male participants were asked how they would rate themselves, the attractiveness scale co-varied with that specific male’s chance of being selected for future meetings resulting from the speed-dating study(Figure 1.3).
Synthesized Pheromone Case Study
This case study is a double-blind, placebo-Controlled study which investigates the effect of synthesized male pheromones and the role these pheromones play on the Sociosexual behavior of men. The study also investigates the pheromones role when interacting with members of the opposite sex as well as the male perception of the pheromones effects on his sex life.
Method and Procedure
In this double-blind study, the participants, all male, began with an interview to complete the required psychological screening. The participants were required to provide informed consent to participate in the study. Each participant was asked to bring his aftershave lotion or cologne for the study. The participants were instructed to use his aftershave or cologne after each shave at least three times per week. Each participant was given a calendar provided by the Athena institute whom was conducting the study [1].
Participants were asked to record six behaviors daily and submit the recording to the Athena institute on a weekly basis. The six behaviors were listed as follows:
During the first two weeks the participants were not given and experimental conditions such as a pheromone or placebo. After the two week baseline period came to an end all study participants were asked to return to the Athena institute to be given an experimental condition. The experimental conditions consisted of either ethanol or an ethanol-pheromone mixture. Each participant was then asked to add the given experimental condition to the aftershave or cologne they had been using during the baseline of the study [1].
The study was only intended to investigate the effects on the men using the placebo or pheromone.
Subjects
The study was recruiting participants by using local press and news announcements. the participants had to be male, of heterosexual orientation, be between ages of 25 to 42, be of good health, have a clean shaven appearance, shave regularly, have decent social skills when it comes to members of the opposite sex, and not be abnormally handsome or unattractive.
When the participants met all of the required criteria, they were required to undergo social screening using a test designed by Hans Eysenck [1, 17]. The participants in the study could not be considered to have a high level of being neurotic, extroverted, or psychotic according to the Eysenck Personality Inventory [17]. Participants also underwent thorough screening in areas of medical, sexual, family, and criminal history.
The following table shows the initial criteria of participant interested in the study:
Each participant is performing this study in the comfort of their own homes. The only location required in the study is the Athena Institute located the West Chester, Pennsylvania. The equipment used in the study is a small 5 milliliter vial containing either the placebo or the pheromone, along with the provided calendar to record the six behaviors required by the study. The study continued for six weeks following the two week baseline.
Stimuli
The stimuli in this study is either ethanol the placebo or the ethanol-pheromone mixture. The pheromone used in the study is a synthetic version of 4,16-Androstadien-3-one [1, 8, 15]. Athena institute still has a patent-pending and therefore will not release its proprietary formula
Results
During the six week study the participant calendars showed aftershave use of 5.82 times per week for the pheromone participants and 5.29 times per week for placebo users. Looking at Table II it is apparent that pheromone users significantly improved above the baseline when compared to the placebo users [1].
A greater proportion of pheromone participants increase in Sociosexual behavior than that of placebo participants. Another results is the self-stimulation was unaffected by both placebo and pheromone use [1, 13]. 47% of participants using the pheromone perceived a result while only 24% of the placebo participants perceived a result.
Discussion
To summarize all the findings in the three different case studies. Two of studies utilizing naturally occurring pheromone, and the other using a synthesized pheromone. All studies have proven the fact that both natural and synthesized pheromones elicit a physical and/or sexual response from the opposite-sex. Even if they cannot detect pheromones consciously, one might speculate, if pheromones increase our romantic interaction, and these pheromones are excreted by our body. What does this say about our society and the obsession with cleanliness [11]?
Certain studies have also suggested that male sweat can assist women experiencing fertility complications [16]. In one study researchers obtained sweat from male subjects who have not used deodorant for four weeks. The sweat obtained from the male subjects was applied to the upper lips of female participants. The female participants immediately stated that they were in a better mood and experienced decreased stress. Some laboratory tests showed an increase in the luteinizing hormone [10], which is the same hormone that increases just prior to ovulation.
The results of both male and female studies suggest that the substances occurring naturally in the underarm secretions of young, sexually active women and young, healthy, sexually active men. Have enormous effects on members of the opposite sex.
Conclusion
In all studies, all participants had the same expectations. However, scientific research has showed that pheromones both natural and artificial can increase romance in one’s life. Pheromones being nearly undetectable and unnoticed can also mean that all living organisms have an innate need to attract to another organism of the same species[. Pheromones specifically sexual pheromones are Mother Nature’s and sciences way of proving a method to finding love [20]. One might ask if pheromones can be used to elicit a sexual response from a member of the same sex. Research suggests that sexual orientation is caused by the lack of a specific hormone. Thus a male subject attempting to use a female pheromone will most likely fail if the targeted individual has normal hormone levels [18].
References:
1. | DOI | Winnifred B. Cutler, Erika Friedmann, & Norma L. Mccoy. (1998). Pheromonal influences on sociosexual behvior in men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 27(1), 1-1-13.
2. | DOI | Tamsin K. Saxton, Anna Lyndon, Anthony C. Little, S. Craig Roberts, Evidence that androstadienone, a putative human chemosignal, modulates women's attributions of men's attractiveness, Hormones and Behavior, Volume 54, Issue 5, November 2008, Pages 597-601
3. | DOI | Norma L. McCoy, Lisa Pitino, Pheromonal influences on sociosexual behavior in young women, Physiology & Behavior, Volume 75, Issue 3, March 2002, Pages 367-375
4. | Book | Gabriele and Rolf Frobose. Lust and Love: is it more than chemistry? 2006
5. | DOI | Karl Grammer, Bernhard Fink, Nick Neave, Human pheromones and sexual attraction, European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, Volume 118, Issue 2, 1 February 2005, Pages 135-142
6. | Book | Gross, Michael: Cupid’s Chemistry. Chemistry World 3, No. 2, 32-35
7. | Book | Sidney A. Simon, Miguel A.L. Nicolelis. Methods in Chemosensory Research 2002
8. | Book | Warrick Brewer, David Castle and Christos Pantelis. Olfaction and the Brain 2006
9. | Wiki | Olfaction." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 29 Nov 2009, 06:42 UTC. 5 Dec 2009
10. | Book | Howard C. Hughes. Sensory Exotica 1999
11. | DOI | Charles J. Wysocki, George Preti (1998) "Pheromonal Influences" Archives of Sexual Behavior 27 (6): 627-641.
12. | Book | Robert H Cagan, Morely R. Kare. Biochemistry of Taste and Olfaction 1981
13. | Book | William H. Masters, Virginia E. Johnson. Human Sexual Response 1966
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